Wilkins, Karin Gwinn, 1962- Redeveloping communication for social change : theory, practice, and power / Karin Gwinn Wilkins. Lanham, Md. : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, c2000.
Introduction, Chapters 1 & 2
Power, its construction and manifestation in development, are the focus of this book. The authors reference social change within the context of power over and over. According to their timeline, development communication has gone from the dominant paradigm (articulated by Lerner, Schramm) to dependency theory to participatory with social. Builds off the assumption that promoting social change needs to begin by understanding the differences in power across communities and institutions.
Things a communication specialist might concern themselves with include critical examination of project communications, disaggregating the structures and discourses of aid organizations, by documenting the roles played by formal and informal groups, and by studying media representations of development. (p.10)
“Economic class status and the things that come with it – Western languages, education, professional employment, travel opportunities, spare cash – together constitute a huge obstacle to real dialogue.” (p. 14). Often trained development workers see traditional religion as an obstacle or barrier to dialogue and development; religion is often seen as something that must be changed. Religion is inseparable from culture and dialogue and actually involves important forms of communication including meditation, storytelling, and prayer. (p.15)
Argues that the discussions need to address power inequities in societies in order to begin the process towards change. Prefers to use the term “development support communication” (DSC) rather than development communication. (p.40). DSC emphasizes support for self-determination of people, especially at the grassroots, rather than simply viewing communication as a tool for economic growth.
It is the power inequalities that exist that are at the root of the failed development projects. Until the social and economic structures are equilibriated, no significant progress can be made.
Power in Third World development (p. 44):
1.Power is exemplified through organized money or organized people or through connections between these.
2.Power is exercised via control of economic, political, cultural, and informational resources.
3.Wielders can reward of punish due to connections with available resources
4.Power is exercised through control of the agenda for the development project.
5.Power is exercised by influencing the shared consciousness of a people or community
Empowerment can occur at different levels: individual, organization, and community and take place in a variety of different contexts (p. 45). Empowerment is defined as the mechanism by which each of these levels gain control and mastery over social and economic conditions.
Taking a bold stand against good-intentions aid, Melkote says it is “unethical to solve minor and/or immediate problems while ignoring the systemic barriers erected by societies that permit or perpetuate inequalities among citizens.” (p. 46). The lack of economic, political and social power must be dealt with first.
3 tenets are given for a successful community organization: (1) empowerment is achieved through effective organizations, (2) effective organizations are maintained by strong inter-personal relationships, and (3) individual empowerment and action-reflection which occurs inherently when participating in a social organization. Of particular relevance to my video focus, effective inter-personal links formed by one-on-one communication, as well as use of “indigenous communication media and technology, such as the videotape cameras as used in Nepal or the Fogo community in Canada.” (p.47).
Reflections
The feel of this book is different from the others. The author uses words like “development industry”, and “unethical development”. The clear focus on power as the heart of the problem seems to simplify things at first, but after awhile you realize the problem has only been renamed and its complexities are still the same – precisely as the book tells us, it is recontextualizing the development debate around power structures and the tangible inequalities that become extremely pronounced in Third World development over almost any other activity. I say this because unlike the political arena or the corporate office setting, Third World development takes place during people's real lives at their real homes with their real kids.
And this is precisely why I believe the author is correct when he says that it is unethical to deal with minor/immediate problems only, leaving the ingrained power divides to remain undisturbed. This is because development is not being done in a lab to multiple test communities that can be reproduced on demand. Development happens in real time and has real impacts, both immediately and in the long run. This is no time to pretend that development is headed down a good path, so we let the power structures deal with themselves while we make sure and spend this grant money. No. The answer is clear. If we actually want to help people, we must first deal with the power inequalities.
Wednesday, October 14, 2009
Development Theory in Latin America
Kay, Cristóbal. Latin American theories of development and underdevelopment / Cristóbal Kay. London ; New York : Routledge, 1989.
Kay writes a theoretical account of development research that has been done by Latin Americans in Latin America, focusing largely on the cone of South America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Brasil). It turns out there is a communication disconnect between development carried out by the North and that done in the South. Oftentimes local research agencies and academic institutions are funded by the World Bank or the United Nations to carry out research, but rarely is that information made known to a broader audience since the authors are not known. Kay hopes to facilitate this transfer of information.
Kay begins by laying out two development paradigms: the structuralism and dependency theory. Structuralism comes from critiques of neoclassical analysis, while dependency theory comes from critiques of modernization theory. (p. 2).
Few underdevelop countries satisfied the assumptions underlying neoclassical and Keynesian economics. For instance, in many developing countries, money is not a universal means of exchange, and financial institutions may be limited to capital cities, a large proportion of rural subsidence farmers, limited infrastructure and access to education, etc. Of course the labor and capital markets and price mechanisms work differently there.
An interesting, more specific example is given for how dependency theory came to be. In Latin America, the Dependistas rallied during the late 1960's and early 1970's. Widespread appeal of dependency theory due to national control over development process and investment of foreign capital, possibility of making an autochthonous contribution to the social sceinces and the revoloutionary and reform aspects.
There are two types of dependistas: reformist and Marxist. Marxist fundamentally saw socialist revolution as the only way to solve the problems of dependence and underdevelopment. The reformists were more of Nationalists, pushing for more national control, but maintain that by reforming the capitalist system, system.
Reflection
So in this book we find a categorically more comprehensive counterpart to the Development Communications Sourcebook, though it is limited to Latin America. It delves into the economic side of development instead of focusing on the communications aspect. The interesting part, however, is that this book is a means of communication itself! All books may be to some extent, but this book is an attempt to increase the horizontal communication between professional development organizations.
This book is helpful for reinforcing the general theories of modernization and dependency, as well as reveal the economic acompanying these changes in theory, proving that people's perspectives were changing in general about the holistic activity that development is. Moreover, a more in-depth description is described about the shift between these two theories. The reaons given for Latin America's support of dependency theory is not as simple as that, but incorporates different factions with different motivations and goals in mind.
Clearly the situation is more complex than we can give it credit, a Tower of Babble, as Kay refers to it. Where does one start? How do you go about it? That is where communication must come in!
Development Communication Sourcebook Module 2
Mefalopulos, Paolo. Development communication sourcebook broadening the boundaries of communication. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008. Print.
Module 2 (p. 39-79)
This module, the second of four in the book, delves into the history of development communication, and its current applications. The first part focuses on nebulously defining Information, Communication, Participation, Consultation, Empowerment, Dialog and Capacity building. Mefalopulos defines them relative to one another. For instance, Information is considered a subset of communication (but not vice-versa), but the difference is in theoretical models: one-way vertical flow (information) vs two-way horizontal flow as well as in scope: transmitter attempting to cause change in behavior (information) vs equal opportunity to exchange knowledge and shape the process among individuals who are transmitters and receivers at the same time. Communication refers to circular communicative flow, mutual will to hear and understand one another, a symmetrical relational scheme. Participation is very much a scale. Consultation is a subset of communication and participation in which the decision-making control remains in the hands of a few who decide if and how to take into account the information given during the consultation. Empowerment refers to an inner condition that good communication can facilitate. Dialog is the proffessional use of two-way communication to “engage stakeholders in the definition and investigation of relevant issues of a development initiative.” Capacity building aims to develop specific knowledge and skills (p.39-43).
Worsley (1984) tells us that development is as old as human history, but most say that the conception was the day Truman gave his 1949 speech: “We must embark on a a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.” Should development be run by rich foreigners? Is development simply a way of maintaining a dominant position over developing nations? (p.43-44).
Paolo now enters the meat of this module by splitting up developmental communication into three different theories, or “paradigms”: modernization paradigm, dependency theory and emerging partipatory paradigm The modernization paradigm began in 1949 with the goal of bringing underdeveloped countries out of poverty by pushing for economic growth via free trade. Essentially the goal was to diffuse the wealthy way of life. The communication was media dominated and very much focused on persuasion by SMCR (Source Method Channel Receivers). By the 1980's poverty was only increasing so it was slowly abandoned by everyone. (p.45-47)
Meanwhile, the 1970's brought with it a new theory, called dependency theory. Founded in part by A.G. Frank, this theory did not limit problems or solutions to the developing world but saw them as a part of a complex international system with historical reasons why a few countries are kept rich while the others fall behind. Colonial control has shifted from armies to economies, from soldiers and weaponry to technocrats and technology. The answer proposed by dependency theory is to become more self-reliant and less dependent on foreign imports, and forming international alliances across developing nations to enact change. Strategy failed in most places, except a few cases such as Brasil, because it failed to consider other reasons besides international capitalism. A few things missed are the role national elites and the wide variation in development across nations, making alliances difficult. To address these concerns, Wallerstein proposed the world-system theory, which looks at a more holistic view of capitalism as the sphere around all development and underdevelopment which is a function of many factors including division of labor, control of raw materials, etc. Communication is still not given more attention, and practical differences are not made (p.47-50).
The emerging participatory paradigm grew as a strategy for engaging in participation and empowerment as the keys to long-term development. This is no single theory, but currently a broad collection of proposed methodologies that focus on participation: the empowerment approach (Friedmann 1922); another development (Melkote 1991; Jacobson 1994), and autonomous development (Carmen 1996). More interested in analyzing at project and community levels rather than generalizing across international lines. Also interested in addressing the entire spectrum of issues at the community level. White, in 1982, laid out the major reasons for participation as (1) services provided at lower cost; (2) intrinsic value to participants; (3) catalyst for further development initiatives; (4) sense of project ownership; (5) use of indigenous knowledge and expertise. The experience has been less than optimal due to concerns of managers not having as much control, general complexities, and different definitions of participation (p. 50-55).
In dealing with participation, rigidly defined theoretical structures are neither feasible nor desirable (Servaes, Jacobson, and White 1996). There are 3 main strands of participation: behavior change communication (BCC); communication for social change (CSC), and advocacy communication (AC). BCC is more of the one-way persuasion. CSC emphasizes the social side and the importance of dialogic definitions of change.. AC is communication to influence specific audiences, policies, and programs on key development issues. The “Sourcebook” (this book) adopts the more simple breakdown of diffusion and participation. Major difference here is that failures in development are often to due different understandings and perceptions about the nature of a problem, rather than the problem itself.
“On the epistemological level, there is no clear distinction between the researcher and what is being studied, as the two belong to the same reality. The researcher does not need to be separated from the issue investigate; on the contrary, he or she can and shhould be part of the context in which the investigation takes place in order to better understand it. Finally, at a methodological level, the research can use a number of qualitative and quantitative methods, not following a predetermined priority order, but according to the required needs.” (p. 58)
Role of media and ICT in Development Communication
ICT is analogized to media initiatives in past development projects. These initiatives had less influence than expected, especially if done by diffusion methods. Important to select and use ICT and media only in a way that addresses specific needs within the broader social and communication environment. Must consider economic, technological, and cultural factors. High economic costs for access and internet. Technological issues include training, maintenance, technical support. Culturally, must consider how they will use the technology, and language issues.
Consider the demand for universal connectivity. “There is a long way to go for the new ICTs to even begin to approach a level of universal service or access.” (FAO 2005:17, 9th UN Round Table on Development Communication). Quantifiable and fast exchange transmission flows of information, ICTs are promising, and have been discussed by World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), and have come up with the multistakeholder approach (Servaes). (p. 63)
Coastal livelihood project in Tanzania used participatory video to send video edited by themselves sent to high-ranking officials who acknowledged it, and opened up new lines of communication (p. 64).
Better communication can also be seen as a right-based approach, meaning it is not only effective but also promotes people's participation in accord with the ethical and democratic principles of current development paradigm. (p. 66) Open-ended and process-oriented use of communication is much harder to measure accurately. How to measure trust, empowerment, level of consensus is still unresolved.
Mefalopulos brings it all together into his integrated and project-oriented model, the “communication multitrack approach”. Always begins with dialogic communication, before moving into a multitrack approach using information dissemination, social marketing, lobbying, edu-tainment, community mobilization. Its a path to add to the basics of two-way communication. (p. 68-73).
Reflection
This module was very useful to me. The author has been kind enough to do all my background research on the history of theoretical development communication and has summarized it to an amount only a matter of pages longer than I expect to do in my own thesis. Most importantly, I am able to use some of the terminology provided and definitions to begin labeling the different approaches we found in Peru.
It was also interesting to read about his discussion of capacity building as a small aspect of participation. In Peru capacity building is everything! It is certainly something on the agenda for all the large NGO projects in Peru. If an NGO was doing a housing reconstruction project, for instance, the process often involved beneficiary commitments to help with labor and master the basic steps to building their home so that they feel more ownership and are able to make sure any repairs are made right. The NGOs were for it, the people were for it, and everybody said they were into capacity building, but the actual results were very poor. Rarely did we meet someone who had been changed by their experience as a participant, and it was much more common to find people who were supposed to be involved building their homes with the NGO workers, but they either did not have time due to work or chose to for other reasons.
Also, nice table on p. 59 Table 2.1 Basic Differences in the 2 Communication Modes. This module certainly provided me with a couple nice images for the background of my thesis. Of particular interest was an example discussing the use of participatory video in Tanzania to give voice rather than a message; this is similar to what we were trying to do. Interestingly enough, neither the social issues being addressed by the project nor the outcome are mentioned and the complete information does not seem to be readily available online.
Module 2 (p. 39-79)
This module, the second of four in the book, delves into the history of development communication, and its current applications. The first part focuses on nebulously defining Information, Communication, Participation, Consultation, Empowerment, Dialog and Capacity building. Mefalopulos defines them relative to one another. For instance, Information is considered a subset of communication (but not vice-versa), but the difference is in theoretical models: one-way vertical flow (information) vs two-way horizontal flow as well as in scope: transmitter attempting to cause change in behavior (information) vs equal opportunity to exchange knowledge and shape the process among individuals who are transmitters and receivers at the same time. Communication refers to circular communicative flow, mutual will to hear and understand one another, a symmetrical relational scheme. Participation is very much a scale. Consultation is a subset of communication and participation in which the decision-making control remains in the hands of a few who decide if and how to take into account the information given during the consultation. Empowerment refers to an inner condition that good communication can facilitate. Dialog is the proffessional use of two-way communication to “engage stakeholders in the definition and investigation of relevant issues of a development initiative.” Capacity building aims to develop specific knowledge and skills (p.39-43).
Worsley (1984) tells us that development is as old as human history, but most say that the conception was the day Truman gave his 1949 speech: “We must embark on a a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.” Should development be run by rich foreigners? Is development simply a way of maintaining a dominant position over developing nations? (p.43-44).
Paolo now enters the meat of this module by splitting up developmental communication into three different theories, or “paradigms”: modernization paradigm, dependency theory and emerging partipatory paradigm The modernization paradigm began in 1949 with the goal of bringing underdeveloped countries out of poverty by pushing for economic growth via free trade. Essentially the goal was to diffuse the wealthy way of life. The communication was media dominated and very much focused on persuasion by SMCR (Source Method Channel Receivers). By the 1980's poverty was only increasing so it was slowly abandoned by everyone. (p.45-47)
Meanwhile, the 1970's brought with it a new theory, called dependency theory. Founded in part by A.G. Frank, this theory did not limit problems or solutions to the developing world but saw them as a part of a complex international system with historical reasons why a few countries are kept rich while the others fall behind. Colonial control has shifted from armies to economies, from soldiers and weaponry to technocrats and technology. The answer proposed by dependency theory is to become more self-reliant and less dependent on foreign imports, and forming international alliances across developing nations to enact change. Strategy failed in most places, except a few cases such as Brasil, because it failed to consider other reasons besides international capitalism. A few things missed are the role national elites and the wide variation in development across nations, making alliances difficult. To address these concerns, Wallerstein proposed the world-system theory, which looks at a more holistic view of capitalism as the sphere around all development and underdevelopment which is a function of many factors including division of labor, control of raw materials, etc. Communication is still not given more attention, and practical differences are not made (p.47-50).
The emerging participatory paradigm grew as a strategy for engaging in participation and empowerment as the keys to long-term development. This is no single theory, but currently a broad collection of proposed methodologies that focus on participation: the empowerment approach (Friedmann 1922); another development (Melkote 1991; Jacobson 1994), and autonomous development (Carmen 1996). More interested in analyzing at project and community levels rather than generalizing across international lines. Also interested in addressing the entire spectrum of issues at the community level. White, in 1982, laid out the major reasons for participation as (1) services provided at lower cost; (2) intrinsic value to participants; (3) catalyst for further development initiatives; (4) sense of project ownership; (5) use of indigenous knowledge and expertise. The experience has been less than optimal due to concerns of managers not having as much control, general complexities, and different definitions of participation (p. 50-55).
In dealing with participation, rigidly defined theoretical structures are neither feasible nor desirable (Servaes, Jacobson, and White 1996). There are 3 main strands of participation: behavior change communication (BCC); communication for social change (CSC), and advocacy communication (AC). BCC is more of the one-way persuasion. CSC emphasizes the social side and the importance of dialogic definitions of change.. AC is communication to influence specific audiences, policies, and programs on key development issues. The “Sourcebook” (this book) adopts the more simple breakdown of diffusion and participation. Major difference here is that failures in development are often to due different understandings and perceptions about the nature of a problem, rather than the problem itself.
“On the epistemological level, there is no clear distinction between the researcher and what is being studied, as the two belong to the same reality. The researcher does not need to be separated from the issue investigate; on the contrary, he or she can and shhould be part of the context in which the investigation takes place in order to better understand it. Finally, at a methodological level, the research can use a number of qualitative and quantitative methods, not following a predetermined priority order, but according to the required needs.” (p. 58)
Role of media and ICT in Development Communication
ICT is analogized to media initiatives in past development projects. These initiatives had less influence than expected, especially if done by diffusion methods. Important to select and use ICT and media only in a way that addresses specific needs within the broader social and communication environment. Must consider economic, technological, and cultural factors. High economic costs for access and internet. Technological issues include training, maintenance, technical support. Culturally, must consider how they will use the technology, and language issues.
Consider the demand for universal connectivity. “There is a long way to go for the new ICTs to even begin to approach a level of universal service or access.” (FAO 2005:17, 9th UN Round Table on Development Communication). Quantifiable and fast exchange transmission flows of information, ICTs are promising, and have been discussed by World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), and have come up with the multistakeholder approach (Servaes). (p. 63)
Coastal livelihood project in Tanzania used participatory video to send video edited by themselves sent to high-ranking officials who acknowledged it, and opened up new lines of communication (p. 64).
Better communication can also be seen as a right-based approach, meaning it is not only effective but also promotes people's participation in accord with the ethical and democratic principles of current development paradigm. (p. 66) Open-ended and process-oriented use of communication is much harder to measure accurately. How to measure trust, empowerment, level of consensus is still unresolved.
Mefalopulos brings it all together into his integrated and project-oriented model, the “communication multitrack approach”. Always begins with dialogic communication, before moving into a multitrack approach using information dissemination, social marketing, lobbying, edu-tainment, community mobilization. Its a path to add to the basics of two-way communication. (p. 68-73).
Reflection
This module was very useful to me. The author has been kind enough to do all my background research on the history of theoretical development communication and has summarized it to an amount only a matter of pages longer than I expect to do in my own thesis. Most importantly, I am able to use some of the terminology provided and definitions to begin labeling the different approaches we found in Peru.
It was also interesting to read about his discussion of capacity building as a small aspect of participation. In Peru capacity building is everything! It is certainly something on the agenda for all the large NGO projects in Peru. If an NGO was doing a housing reconstruction project, for instance, the process often involved beneficiary commitments to help with labor and master the basic steps to building their home so that they feel more ownership and are able to make sure any repairs are made right. The NGOs were for it, the people were for it, and everybody said they were into capacity building, but the actual results were very poor. Rarely did we meet someone who had been changed by their experience as a participant, and it was much more common to find people who were supposed to be involved building their homes with the NGO workers, but they either did not have time due to work or chose to for other reasons.
Also, nice table on p. 59 Table 2.1 Basic Differences in the 2 Communication Modes. This module certainly provided me with a couple nice images for the background of my thesis. Of particular interest was an example discussing the use of participatory video in Tanzania to give voice rather than a message; this is similar to what we were trying to do. Interestingly enough, neither the social issues being addressed by the project nor the outcome are mentioned and the complete information does not seem to be readily available online.
Thursday, October 1, 2009
Insights into Participatory Video: Part 2
Insights into Participatory Video: A Handbook for the field p 17-54. (Part 2) by Nick and Chris Lunch
Part 2 – The PV Process
Beginning with a basic community entry checklist, then including details on video activities, the authors use Part 2 to provide insight into their version of participatory video that has been refined and tested in communities around the world.
Prepare for PV
Make an initial visit
Do some research
Set team objectives
Obtain equipment
Check the equipment
Arrival on-site
Be sensitive
Be flexible
Screen the day's footage
Then the paper goes on to discuss the various activities that they have found to work particularly well. These include the: Disappearing Game, Name Game, Twist in Frame, Storyboard Technique, Shot Challenge, Significant Dates, Community Mapping, Journalistic Interview, Think and Listen (Brainstorming), Margolis Wheel. Each of these have very specific goals in mind and can be tailored to the local conditions in ways that will substantially increase their impact. For that reason it is important to brainstorm and plan how to do these before arriving, as well as work with the people there to provide their feedback and ideas on how to move forward.
The end goal of the activities is to get the participants to start thinking about video as telling a story. The exercises are designed to build trust, gain video technical skills, and teach the basic process of ideating, storyboarding, filming, and screening. Some key factors for success are: who brings you there; who you have chosen to work with; and your own attitude and behavior. Additionally, try to become aware of the social geography in the community. Make sure you work in all the different areas, with people of different wealth, vocation, gender and age groups.
The rest of this piece goes into detail on how to conduct community screening of footage, ethical things to watch out for, and editing. As one can imagine, handling and distributing someone else's footage is very tricky, especially due to the huge power divide that inherently exists between the facilitators and the participants. Editing is limited by using a tripod and in-camera editing (planning carefully beforehand). Some basic editing has been done by these programs in the past, but their usual method has been to leave behind complete footage taken in the form of a VHS and make only minor edits when showing it to others.
Reflections
Immediately, it is clear that the major difference between the Lunch version of PV and our work in Peru, is the equipment: Lunch utilizes one camera and brings a TV, a full-size tripod, microphone and lighting equipment with the camera at all times, while we brought 10 small cameras, a couple mini-tripods, often borrowed a TV, and never utilized a microphone or lighting equipment. The other major difference is we brought laptops and had the students edit their own footage into videos. The Lunch paper suggests how to help people do the editing on Pinnacle but admits that in-camera editing and limited facilitator editing is often the solution. I much prefer the results of editing with the participants as this gives them control in the actual end product and ensures that the final version is approved by them in person. Distribution, then, is still another issue in itself.
The author goes on to discuss the importance of the participants filming each other and seeing each other on TV as a group, acknowledging how they feel about it, and discussing it as a group. This would be a good idea, and something we did not force our students to do. It may have helped alleviate their fears earlier and also put them in a position where they could encourage others that they were filming that it was indeed OK.
This portion helped me reflect on how to incorporate more interesting games into the PV process. A few of them we did on our own anyway, but a couple, especially on the topic of improving video interview skills would have been useful. I especially like the Think and Listen activity, Visioning, and Body Maps activities – all of which are meant to encourage brainstorming and stimulate thought. Also to give everyone a chance to become more comfortable with communicating well with each other in a relaxed environment. In addition, I thought the inclusion of more group based activities is a good idea for building teamwork between the participants. That was one thing I thought about quite a bit during our work, since we were working in two small communities. By the end of our project people from the two communities had gotten to know each other and had developed relationships that previously had not existed. This literature provides ideas to further facilitate that process.
Stepping Forward
Johnson, Victoria, Edda Ivan-Smith, Gill Gordon, Pat Pridmore, and Patta Scott. Stepping Forward Children and Young Peoples Participation in the Development Process (Intermediate Technology Publications in Participation Series). New York: Practical Action, 1999. Print.
(p. 194-219)
“Stepping Forward Children and Young Peoples Participation inn the Development Process” is a comprehensive review of the current knowledge needed to successfully incorporate youth and children of developing nations into aid programs. The excerpt I chose was focused on rural family power structures, child-initiated participation in schools, and a case study in Jamaica that has developed a program in a marginalized community that is now entirely run by the youth, even in financial aspects.
The role of children in the family is changing around the world with globalized economy, changing gender roles, urbanization, political and social change. More decisions are being made by children, especially girls, in support of their parents and elderly, daily chores, and taking care of siblings. In any participatory involvement of children, it is important that the adults are invested in the effort. Oftentimes, programs should involve community projects at the beginning to include the families and not only the children.
Youth are still the least powerful members of the family. For certain cultural settings, this structure is unavoidable unless the external environment changes. When trying to help students voice be heard, projects take a long time. As time wears on, the children also lose interest and it is difficult to recruit new members, especially in small communities.
Child participation in the school setting should be at the heart of the program instead of a lovely by-product. Creating projects that are guided by the students themselves from the outset is the way to go according to a renowned project in semi-rural Britain where a committee of students formed and revitalized an unused plot of playground land into a wildlife park.
Development programs in marginalized communities in Jamaica went through four stages in a long-term youth-directed initiative. They began with “buffet style”, then to “feedback”, then to “adult-initiated, shared decisions with children”, then to “child-initiated and child-directed”. The styles indicate increasing youth participation, and in the last stage the children are given control of even the resources of the project, leaving the aid workers as external consultants and nothing more.
Reflections
The tragedy of the earthquake was a traumatic event in the communities brought to their knees for years afterwards, begging the government and NGOs for answers to feed their families. When I think about Peru I think about the NGOs that incorporated children into their programs – ASPEm in Tambo de Mora, CODEHICA and Aportes in Senor de Luren. These programs were well-received by all. I also think about how the familial roles of the youth in our video class. A couple of the girls were 13 and 14 and responsible for cooking every day, as well as taking care of their younger siblings while both her parents worked long hours.
The discussion on the project lifetime is applicable to our project as it helps explain possibly why the program began to slow down towards the end of the month. During the first weeks, the program was novel and the children and adults were willing to take time out to spend on the activities. However, as the more pressing issues of daily life arose, the children were forced to focus on family chores, school, etc. If the program was longer – on the scale of a year, maybe it would be more effective at a slower pace. Otherwise, our program and this book would advise the program to be on the scale of a few weeks.
Wednesday, September 30, 2009
Development Communication Sourcebook: Module 1
Mefalopulos, Paolo. Development communication sourcebook broadening the boundaries of communication. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008. Print.
Module 1
“Communication: a term with a great number of meanings.”
-Denis Diderot, 1753 (p.3)
This book is composed of four modules. This first module introduces the theory and a brief historical path followed by developmental communication. It defines the various types of communication, and points out that failed communication and lack of stakeholder participation are the two leading causes of failed development. It begins by acknowledging the complexity and breadth of communication, and clearly defines the difference between communication and communications, as well as the differences between Corporate, Internal, Advocacy, and Development communication.
Every sustainable project requires effective communication to build trust, share knowledge and ensure understanding. Participative communication is important from either a rights-based, good-governance, sustainability, and project design perspective (p.9). Participation lives on a dial that goes from passive informational stakeholder meetings to collaborative decision-making by locals. The author, Paolo Mefalopulos, is a senior communications officer in DevComm the development communications branch of the World Bank.
Paolo also introduces some simple tools used by development experts. For instance, projects should start with a communication needs assessment (CNA) to identify potential communication issues before a project begins. These include information gaps, communication needs and capacities, local media environment, formal and informal flows, networks, etc. Explorative assessments are incorporated intot the initial design stages, and Topical assessments are those done during ongoing projects. Another method is the “Window of Perception” which is a set of simple flow charts mapping out the differences between stakeholder and aid worker perceptions of a given situation or project.
A study by DevComm found that decision-makers are aware of importance of communication but are lacking in the knowledge of breadth and scope of communication. Often they only address communication when it becomes a clear problem as opposed to handling it early on. Paolo makes a good point that communication is successful when everybody wins and change takes place because of stakeholder investment. DevComm recommends the use of a methodological framework based on 4 stages: Communication-based Assessment, Strategy Design, Implementation, and Monitoring and Evaluation.
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR). Using media-centric campaigns to diffuse new perspectives. This model was rejected during the 1960's, due to its paternalistic Western nature. The dependency theory was developed in its stead, focusing on a more equitable exchange of information, and cultural programs among rich and poor countries. This lasted till 1980's with recognized success but failure of economic models pushed by its proponents led to its decline.
Since then, participation as a focus has been the emerging model. This stage has been called the "multiplicity paradigm" as pronounced by Servaes in 1999. The World Bank (1994) said "..participation is inceasingy recognized as a necessary part of sustainable development strategies." (p.7) Development Communication is defined by DevComm (The Development Communication branch of the World Bank) as:
"An interdisciplinary field based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve postivie change in development initiatives. It is not only abeffective dissemination of information but also about using empirical research and two-way communication among stakeholders."
During the First World Congress of Communication for Development in Rome, Oct. 2006 the following definition was built into the 'Rome Consensus':
"A social process based on dialog using a broad range of tools and method. It is also about seeking change at different levels, including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication."
History of development has included failures due to two things: lack of participation, and failure to communicate effectively. (p.8; Agunga 1997; Anyaegbunam, Mefalopulos, and Moetsabi 1998). Servaes (2003, p.20) states that "the successes and failures of most development projects are often determined by two crucial factors: communication.
Reflection
Each of these fields require its own toolbox of skills and knowledge. The author, however, goes as far as analogizing different types of engineers to different types of communicators, which may be true due to the vastly different perspectives between the two, but I find it hard to prove that this analogy applies any deeper. Building on this, the author seems to be a bit biased as he often emphasizes the importance of highly-trained development communication experts as the answer to successful projects. Coincidentally he is a senior communications officer in the DevComm branch of the World Bank.
Most useful to me was the simple introduction to the very wishy-washy science of communication. This information is valuable for beginning to understand more advanced literature on the topic. Additionally, the definitions have given me a basic knowledge of the lingo needed to explain that my research was a “topical assessment of the dialogic development communication between post-earthquake communities and NGOs...”
Another phrase I found useful was when he mentioned that the dialogic communication model had two broad applications: (1) assessment; and (2) empowerment. This is useful because my research goals were precisely this – to assess and to empower, by researching and experimenting. (p. 24). Additionally, on-site research is stressed for intervention, which was our approach as well. DevComm uses a methodological framework that is very intuitive, and lines up quite well with our NGO interviews, so I hope to be able to make some comparisons there.
Module 1
“Communication: a term with a great number of meanings.”
-Denis Diderot, 1753 (p.3)
This book is composed of four modules. This first module introduces the theory and a brief historical path followed by developmental communication. It defines the various types of communication, and points out that failed communication and lack of stakeholder participation are the two leading causes of failed development. It begins by acknowledging the complexity and breadth of communication, and clearly defines the difference between communication and communications, as well as the differences between Corporate, Internal, Advocacy, and Development communication.
Every sustainable project requires effective communication to build trust, share knowledge and ensure understanding. Participative communication is important from either a rights-based, good-governance, sustainability, and project design perspective (p.9). Participation lives on a dial that goes from passive informational stakeholder meetings to collaborative decision-making by locals. The author, Paolo Mefalopulos, is a senior communications officer in DevComm the development communications branch of the World Bank.
Paolo also introduces some simple tools used by development experts. For instance, projects should start with a communication needs assessment (CNA) to identify potential communication issues before a project begins. These include information gaps, communication needs and capacities, local media environment, formal and informal flows, networks, etc. Explorative assessments are incorporated intot the initial design stages, and Topical assessments are those done during ongoing projects. Another method is the “Window of Perception” which is a set of simple flow charts mapping out the differences between stakeholder and aid worker perceptions of a given situation or project.
A study by DevComm found that decision-makers are aware of importance of communication but are lacking in the knowledge of breadth and scope of communication. Often they only address communication when it becomes a clear problem as opposed to handling it early on. Paolo makes a good point that communication is successful when everybody wins and change takes place because of stakeholder investment. DevComm recommends the use of a methodological framework based on 4 stages: Communication-based Assessment, Strategy Design, Implementation, and Monitoring and Evaluation.
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR). Using media-centric campaigns to diffuse new perspectives. This model was rejected during the 1960's, due to its paternalistic Western nature. The dependency theory was developed in its stead, focusing on a more equitable exchange of information, and cultural programs among rich and poor countries. This lasted till 1980's with recognized success but failure of economic models pushed by its proponents led to its decline.
Since then, participation as a focus has been the emerging model. This stage has been called the "multiplicity paradigm" as pronounced by Servaes in 1999. The World Bank (1994) said "..participation is inceasingy recognized as a necessary part of sustainable development strategies." (p.7) Development Communication is defined by DevComm (The Development Communication branch of the World Bank) as:
"An interdisciplinary field based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve postivie change in development initiatives. It is not only abeffective dissemination of information but also about using empirical research and two-way communication among stakeholders."
During the First World Congress of Communication for Development in Rome, Oct. 2006 the following definition was built into the 'Rome Consensus':
"A social process based on dialog using a broad range of tools and method. It is also about seeking change at different levels, including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication."
History of development has included failures due to two things: lack of participation, and failure to communicate effectively. (p.8; Agunga 1997; Anyaegbunam, Mefalopulos, and Moetsabi 1998). Servaes (2003, p.20) states that "the successes and failures of most development projects are often determined by two crucial factors: communication.
Reflection
Each of these fields require its own toolbox of skills and knowledge. The author, however, goes as far as analogizing different types of engineers to different types of communicators, which may be true due to the vastly different perspectives between the two, but I find it hard to prove that this analogy applies any deeper. Building on this, the author seems to be a bit biased as he often emphasizes the importance of highly-trained development communication experts as the answer to successful projects. Coincidentally he is a senior communications officer in the DevComm branch of the World Bank.
Most useful to me was the simple introduction to the very wishy-washy science of communication. This information is valuable for beginning to understand more advanced literature on the topic. Additionally, the definitions have given me a basic knowledge of the lingo needed to explain that my research was a “topical assessment of the dialogic development communication between post-earthquake communities and NGOs...”
Another phrase I found useful was when he mentioned that the dialogic communication model had two broad applications: (1) assessment; and (2) empowerment. This is useful because my research goals were precisely this – to assess and to empower, by researching and experimenting. (p. 24). Additionally, on-site research is stressed for intervention, which was our approach as well. DevComm uses a methodological framework that is very intuitive, and lines up quite well with our NGO interviews, so I hope to be able to make some comparisons there.
Thursday, September 24, 2009
Wreckage upon Wreckage
Paula Rabinowitz, “Wreckage upon Wreckage: History, Documentary and the Ruins of Memory,” History and Theory 32.2 (1993): pp. 119-137.
This article is a good summary of theoretical underpinnings of documentary-making. It is very useful for pointing out the origins of a documentary – really thinking about the importance of truth and honesty in its separation from many other forms of communication. By focusing on the differences between video and documentary and film and theater and writing, Rabinowitz eventually shows that they are all different ways of communicating a story. But of all of these, the documentary has been considered the most reliable transfer of information across recent history. This theory is systematically torn down by the author who kindly reminds us of the subjectivity inherent in documentaries as much as all the others.
This article's best strength is its way of saying quite obvious things, very elegantly. For this reason, I will include a smattering of my favorite quotes. At the end, I include an overall reflection of the article.
“Not only does it seek to reconstruct historical narrative, but it often functions as an historical document itself. These strategies are based on a desire to enlist the audience in the process of historical reconstruction. The documentary film differentiates itself from narrative cinema by claiming its status as a truth-telling mode. However, as a filmic construction, it relies on cinematic semiosis to convince its audience of its validity and truth. By looking at the history of documentary address, this essay outlines the rhetoric of persuasion and evaluates its effectiveness.”
“The historical documentary not only tells us about the past, but asks us to do something about it as well-to act as the Angel of History and redeem the present through the past.”
"From a historian's point of view," writes Sonya Michel, "these privileged subjects can become problematic if a film limits its perspective by relying on them as sole or even primary informants. While oral history subjects are frequently both engaging and uniquely informative, their accounts of historical events or periods can be partial, fragmentary, idio-syncratic and sometimes deliberately or unintentionally miseading."Testimony is always a partial truth, so when filmmakers authorize their subjects to speak and thus provoke their audiences to act, it can only be a supplementary gesture towards truth. syncratic "Testimony is always a partial truth, so when filmmakers authorize their subjects to speak and thus provoke their audiences to act, it can only be a supplementary gesture towards truth.
“This desire to dream, to provoke imagination, seems to lead the documentary away from the realm of history and truth into the realm of art and artifice. In documentary the viewer is asked to participate in a series of contracts -between film and its object, between filmmaker and audience, between reality and representation.”
Reflections
Video is communication. A very rich form of communication with an access level that is steadily dropping to the rungs of the common person. Even in rural Peru people have TV's. In fact, many of them would see the value in purchasing a $150 FlipCam - but unfortunately they are not available there. All electronics, in fact, are quite expensive and/or unavailable. In a country where we have it all, we often forget that the existence of technologies hanging low for us, may be out of sight for most of the world.
This whole discussion on the depth of historical documentary as a communication channel across cultures and time is very cool. As long as we keep in mind that everything we are watching is made to produce a response rather than portray a reality of truth, than we can learn great things from documentaries including historical facts.
I do like, however, how this article reminds the film-maker to at least make honest films. They will by definition be subjective and always a representation rather than a recreation, but its important to strive to tell an honest story when it comes to historical documentation. That is why collaborators from different perspectives, or non-biased perspectives working on such a documentation process would be preferred in my humble viewing opinion.
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