Wilkins, Karin Gwinn, 1962- Redeveloping communication for social change : theory, practice, and power / Karin Gwinn Wilkins. Lanham, Md. : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, c2000.
Introduction, Chapters 1 & 2
Power, its construction and manifestation in development, are the focus of this book. The authors reference social change within the context of power over and over. According to their timeline, development communication has gone from the dominant paradigm (articulated by Lerner, Schramm) to dependency theory to participatory with social. Builds off the assumption that promoting social change needs to begin by understanding the differences in power across communities and institutions.
Things a communication specialist might concern themselves with include critical examination of project communications, disaggregating the structures and discourses of aid organizations, by documenting the roles played by formal and informal groups, and by studying media representations of development. (p.10)
“Economic class status and the things that come with it – Western languages, education, professional employment, travel opportunities, spare cash – together constitute a huge obstacle to real dialogue.” (p. 14). Often trained development workers see traditional religion as an obstacle or barrier to dialogue and development; religion is often seen as something that must be changed. Religion is inseparable from culture and dialogue and actually involves important forms of communication including meditation, storytelling, and prayer. (p.15)
Argues that the discussions need to address power inequities in societies in order to begin the process towards change. Prefers to use the term “development support communication” (DSC) rather than development communication. (p.40). DSC emphasizes support for self-determination of people, especially at the grassroots, rather than simply viewing communication as a tool for economic growth.
It is the power inequalities that exist that are at the root of the failed development projects. Until the social and economic structures are equilibriated, no significant progress can be made.
Power in Third World development (p. 44):
1.Power is exemplified through organized money or organized people or through connections between these.
2.Power is exercised via control of economic, political, cultural, and informational resources.
3.Wielders can reward of punish due to connections with available resources
4.Power is exercised through control of the agenda for the development project.
5.Power is exercised by influencing the shared consciousness of a people or community
Empowerment can occur at different levels: individual, organization, and community and take place in a variety of different contexts (p. 45). Empowerment is defined as the mechanism by which each of these levels gain control and mastery over social and economic conditions.
Taking a bold stand against good-intentions aid, Melkote says it is “unethical to solve minor and/or immediate problems while ignoring the systemic barriers erected by societies that permit or perpetuate inequalities among citizens.” (p. 46). The lack of economic, political and social power must be dealt with first.
3 tenets are given for a successful community organization: (1) empowerment is achieved through effective organizations, (2) effective organizations are maintained by strong inter-personal relationships, and (3) individual empowerment and action-reflection which occurs inherently when participating in a social organization. Of particular relevance to my video focus, effective inter-personal links formed by one-on-one communication, as well as use of “indigenous communication media and technology, such as the videotape cameras as used in Nepal or the Fogo community in Canada.” (p.47).
Reflections
The feel of this book is different from the others. The author uses words like “development industry”, and “unethical development”. The clear focus on power as the heart of the problem seems to simplify things at first, but after awhile you realize the problem has only been renamed and its complexities are still the same – precisely as the book tells us, it is recontextualizing the development debate around power structures and the tangible inequalities that become extremely pronounced in Third World development over almost any other activity. I say this because unlike the political arena or the corporate office setting, Third World development takes place during people's real lives at their real homes with their real kids.
And this is precisely why I believe the author is correct when he says that it is unethical to deal with minor/immediate problems only, leaving the ingrained power divides to remain undisturbed. This is because development is not being done in a lab to multiple test communities that can be reproduced on demand. Development happens in real time and has real impacts, both immediately and in the long run. This is no time to pretend that development is headed down a good path, so we let the power structures deal with themselves while we make sure and spend this grant money. No. The answer is clear. If we actually want to help people, we must first deal with the power inequalities.
Wednesday, October 14, 2009
Development Theory in Latin America
Kay, Cristóbal. Latin American theories of development and underdevelopment / Cristóbal Kay. London ; New York : Routledge, 1989.
Kay writes a theoretical account of development research that has been done by Latin Americans in Latin America, focusing largely on the cone of South America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Brasil). It turns out there is a communication disconnect between development carried out by the North and that done in the South. Oftentimes local research agencies and academic institutions are funded by the World Bank or the United Nations to carry out research, but rarely is that information made known to a broader audience since the authors are not known. Kay hopes to facilitate this transfer of information.
Kay begins by laying out two development paradigms: the structuralism and dependency theory. Structuralism comes from critiques of neoclassical analysis, while dependency theory comes from critiques of modernization theory. (p. 2).
Few underdevelop countries satisfied the assumptions underlying neoclassical and Keynesian economics. For instance, in many developing countries, money is not a universal means of exchange, and financial institutions may be limited to capital cities, a large proportion of rural subsidence farmers, limited infrastructure and access to education, etc. Of course the labor and capital markets and price mechanisms work differently there.
An interesting, more specific example is given for how dependency theory came to be. In Latin America, the Dependistas rallied during the late 1960's and early 1970's. Widespread appeal of dependency theory due to national control over development process and investment of foreign capital, possibility of making an autochthonous contribution to the social sceinces and the revoloutionary and reform aspects.
There are two types of dependistas: reformist and Marxist. Marxist fundamentally saw socialist revolution as the only way to solve the problems of dependence and underdevelopment. The reformists were more of Nationalists, pushing for more national control, but maintain that by reforming the capitalist system, system.
Reflection
So in this book we find a categorically more comprehensive counterpart to the Development Communications Sourcebook, though it is limited to Latin America. It delves into the economic side of development instead of focusing on the communications aspect. The interesting part, however, is that this book is a means of communication itself! All books may be to some extent, but this book is an attempt to increase the horizontal communication between professional development organizations.
This book is helpful for reinforcing the general theories of modernization and dependency, as well as reveal the economic acompanying these changes in theory, proving that people's perspectives were changing in general about the holistic activity that development is. Moreover, a more in-depth description is described about the shift between these two theories. The reaons given for Latin America's support of dependency theory is not as simple as that, but incorporates different factions with different motivations and goals in mind.
Clearly the situation is more complex than we can give it credit, a Tower of Babble, as Kay refers to it. Where does one start? How do you go about it? That is where communication must come in!
Development Communication Sourcebook Module 2
Mefalopulos, Paolo. Development communication sourcebook broadening the boundaries of communication. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008. Print.
Module 2 (p. 39-79)
This module, the second of four in the book, delves into the history of development communication, and its current applications. The first part focuses on nebulously defining Information, Communication, Participation, Consultation, Empowerment, Dialog and Capacity building. Mefalopulos defines them relative to one another. For instance, Information is considered a subset of communication (but not vice-versa), but the difference is in theoretical models: one-way vertical flow (information) vs two-way horizontal flow as well as in scope: transmitter attempting to cause change in behavior (information) vs equal opportunity to exchange knowledge and shape the process among individuals who are transmitters and receivers at the same time. Communication refers to circular communicative flow, mutual will to hear and understand one another, a symmetrical relational scheme. Participation is very much a scale. Consultation is a subset of communication and participation in which the decision-making control remains in the hands of a few who decide if and how to take into account the information given during the consultation. Empowerment refers to an inner condition that good communication can facilitate. Dialog is the proffessional use of two-way communication to “engage stakeholders in the definition and investigation of relevant issues of a development initiative.” Capacity building aims to develop specific knowledge and skills (p.39-43).
Worsley (1984) tells us that development is as old as human history, but most say that the conception was the day Truman gave his 1949 speech: “We must embark on a a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.” Should development be run by rich foreigners? Is development simply a way of maintaining a dominant position over developing nations? (p.43-44).
Paolo now enters the meat of this module by splitting up developmental communication into three different theories, or “paradigms”: modernization paradigm, dependency theory and emerging partipatory paradigm The modernization paradigm began in 1949 with the goal of bringing underdeveloped countries out of poverty by pushing for economic growth via free trade. Essentially the goal was to diffuse the wealthy way of life. The communication was media dominated and very much focused on persuasion by SMCR (Source Method Channel Receivers). By the 1980's poverty was only increasing so it was slowly abandoned by everyone. (p.45-47)
Meanwhile, the 1970's brought with it a new theory, called dependency theory. Founded in part by A.G. Frank, this theory did not limit problems or solutions to the developing world but saw them as a part of a complex international system with historical reasons why a few countries are kept rich while the others fall behind. Colonial control has shifted from armies to economies, from soldiers and weaponry to technocrats and technology. The answer proposed by dependency theory is to become more self-reliant and less dependent on foreign imports, and forming international alliances across developing nations to enact change. Strategy failed in most places, except a few cases such as Brasil, because it failed to consider other reasons besides international capitalism. A few things missed are the role national elites and the wide variation in development across nations, making alliances difficult. To address these concerns, Wallerstein proposed the world-system theory, which looks at a more holistic view of capitalism as the sphere around all development and underdevelopment which is a function of many factors including division of labor, control of raw materials, etc. Communication is still not given more attention, and practical differences are not made (p.47-50).
The emerging participatory paradigm grew as a strategy for engaging in participation and empowerment as the keys to long-term development. This is no single theory, but currently a broad collection of proposed methodologies that focus on participation: the empowerment approach (Friedmann 1922); another development (Melkote 1991; Jacobson 1994), and autonomous development (Carmen 1996). More interested in analyzing at project and community levels rather than generalizing across international lines. Also interested in addressing the entire spectrum of issues at the community level. White, in 1982, laid out the major reasons for participation as (1) services provided at lower cost; (2) intrinsic value to participants; (3) catalyst for further development initiatives; (4) sense of project ownership; (5) use of indigenous knowledge and expertise. The experience has been less than optimal due to concerns of managers not having as much control, general complexities, and different definitions of participation (p. 50-55).
In dealing with participation, rigidly defined theoretical structures are neither feasible nor desirable (Servaes, Jacobson, and White 1996). There are 3 main strands of participation: behavior change communication (BCC); communication for social change (CSC), and advocacy communication (AC). BCC is more of the one-way persuasion. CSC emphasizes the social side and the importance of dialogic definitions of change.. AC is communication to influence specific audiences, policies, and programs on key development issues. The “Sourcebook” (this book) adopts the more simple breakdown of diffusion and participation. Major difference here is that failures in development are often to due different understandings and perceptions about the nature of a problem, rather than the problem itself.
“On the epistemological level, there is no clear distinction between the researcher and what is being studied, as the two belong to the same reality. The researcher does not need to be separated from the issue investigate; on the contrary, he or she can and shhould be part of the context in which the investigation takes place in order to better understand it. Finally, at a methodological level, the research can use a number of qualitative and quantitative methods, not following a predetermined priority order, but according to the required needs.” (p. 58)
Role of media and ICT in Development Communication
ICT is analogized to media initiatives in past development projects. These initiatives had less influence than expected, especially if done by diffusion methods. Important to select and use ICT and media only in a way that addresses specific needs within the broader social and communication environment. Must consider economic, technological, and cultural factors. High economic costs for access and internet. Technological issues include training, maintenance, technical support. Culturally, must consider how they will use the technology, and language issues.
Consider the demand for universal connectivity. “There is a long way to go for the new ICTs to even begin to approach a level of universal service or access.” (FAO 2005:17, 9th UN Round Table on Development Communication). Quantifiable and fast exchange transmission flows of information, ICTs are promising, and have been discussed by World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), and have come up with the multistakeholder approach (Servaes). (p. 63)
Coastal livelihood project in Tanzania used participatory video to send video edited by themselves sent to high-ranking officials who acknowledged it, and opened up new lines of communication (p. 64).
Better communication can also be seen as a right-based approach, meaning it is not only effective but also promotes people's participation in accord with the ethical and democratic principles of current development paradigm. (p. 66) Open-ended and process-oriented use of communication is much harder to measure accurately. How to measure trust, empowerment, level of consensus is still unresolved.
Mefalopulos brings it all together into his integrated and project-oriented model, the “communication multitrack approach”. Always begins with dialogic communication, before moving into a multitrack approach using information dissemination, social marketing, lobbying, edu-tainment, community mobilization. Its a path to add to the basics of two-way communication. (p. 68-73).
Reflection
This module was very useful to me. The author has been kind enough to do all my background research on the history of theoretical development communication and has summarized it to an amount only a matter of pages longer than I expect to do in my own thesis. Most importantly, I am able to use some of the terminology provided and definitions to begin labeling the different approaches we found in Peru.
It was also interesting to read about his discussion of capacity building as a small aspect of participation. In Peru capacity building is everything! It is certainly something on the agenda for all the large NGO projects in Peru. If an NGO was doing a housing reconstruction project, for instance, the process often involved beneficiary commitments to help with labor and master the basic steps to building their home so that they feel more ownership and are able to make sure any repairs are made right. The NGOs were for it, the people were for it, and everybody said they were into capacity building, but the actual results were very poor. Rarely did we meet someone who had been changed by their experience as a participant, and it was much more common to find people who were supposed to be involved building their homes with the NGO workers, but they either did not have time due to work or chose to for other reasons.
Also, nice table on p. 59 Table 2.1 Basic Differences in the 2 Communication Modes. This module certainly provided me with a couple nice images for the background of my thesis. Of particular interest was an example discussing the use of participatory video in Tanzania to give voice rather than a message; this is similar to what we were trying to do. Interestingly enough, neither the social issues being addressed by the project nor the outcome are mentioned and the complete information does not seem to be readily available online.
Module 2 (p. 39-79)
This module, the second of four in the book, delves into the history of development communication, and its current applications. The first part focuses on nebulously defining Information, Communication, Participation, Consultation, Empowerment, Dialog and Capacity building. Mefalopulos defines them relative to one another. For instance, Information is considered a subset of communication (but not vice-versa), but the difference is in theoretical models: one-way vertical flow (information) vs two-way horizontal flow as well as in scope: transmitter attempting to cause change in behavior (information) vs equal opportunity to exchange knowledge and shape the process among individuals who are transmitters and receivers at the same time. Communication refers to circular communicative flow, mutual will to hear and understand one another, a symmetrical relational scheme. Participation is very much a scale. Consultation is a subset of communication and participation in which the decision-making control remains in the hands of a few who decide if and how to take into account the information given during the consultation. Empowerment refers to an inner condition that good communication can facilitate. Dialog is the proffessional use of two-way communication to “engage stakeholders in the definition and investigation of relevant issues of a development initiative.” Capacity building aims to develop specific knowledge and skills (p.39-43).
Worsley (1984) tells us that development is as old as human history, but most say that the conception was the day Truman gave his 1949 speech: “We must embark on a a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.” Should development be run by rich foreigners? Is development simply a way of maintaining a dominant position over developing nations? (p.43-44).
Paolo now enters the meat of this module by splitting up developmental communication into three different theories, or “paradigms”: modernization paradigm, dependency theory and emerging partipatory paradigm The modernization paradigm began in 1949 with the goal of bringing underdeveloped countries out of poverty by pushing for economic growth via free trade. Essentially the goal was to diffuse the wealthy way of life. The communication was media dominated and very much focused on persuasion by SMCR (Source Method Channel Receivers). By the 1980's poverty was only increasing so it was slowly abandoned by everyone. (p.45-47)
Meanwhile, the 1970's brought with it a new theory, called dependency theory. Founded in part by A.G. Frank, this theory did not limit problems or solutions to the developing world but saw them as a part of a complex international system with historical reasons why a few countries are kept rich while the others fall behind. Colonial control has shifted from armies to economies, from soldiers and weaponry to technocrats and technology. The answer proposed by dependency theory is to become more self-reliant and less dependent on foreign imports, and forming international alliances across developing nations to enact change. Strategy failed in most places, except a few cases such as Brasil, because it failed to consider other reasons besides international capitalism. A few things missed are the role national elites and the wide variation in development across nations, making alliances difficult. To address these concerns, Wallerstein proposed the world-system theory, which looks at a more holistic view of capitalism as the sphere around all development and underdevelopment which is a function of many factors including division of labor, control of raw materials, etc. Communication is still not given more attention, and practical differences are not made (p.47-50).
The emerging participatory paradigm grew as a strategy for engaging in participation and empowerment as the keys to long-term development. This is no single theory, but currently a broad collection of proposed methodologies that focus on participation: the empowerment approach (Friedmann 1922); another development (Melkote 1991; Jacobson 1994), and autonomous development (Carmen 1996). More interested in analyzing at project and community levels rather than generalizing across international lines. Also interested in addressing the entire spectrum of issues at the community level. White, in 1982, laid out the major reasons for participation as (1) services provided at lower cost; (2) intrinsic value to participants; (3) catalyst for further development initiatives; (4) sense of project ownership; (5) use of indigenous knowledge and expertise. The experience has been less than optimal due to concerns of managers not having as much control, general complexities, and different definitions of participation (p. 50-55).
In dealing with participation, rigidly defined theoretical structures are neither feasible nor desirable (Servaes, Jacobson, and White 1996). There are 3 main strands of participation: behavior change communication (BCC); communication for social change (CSC), and advocacy communication (AC). BCC is more of the one-way persuasion. CSC emphasizes the social side and the importance of dialogic definitions of change.. AC is communication to influence specific audiences, policies, and programs on key development issues. The “Sourcebook” (this book) adopts the more simple breakdown of diffusion and participation. Major difference here is that failures in development are often to due different understandings and perceptions about the nature of a problem, rather than the problem itself.
“On the epistemological level, there is no clear distinction between the researcher and what is being studied, as the two belong to the same reality. The researcher does not need to be separated from the issue investigate; on the contrary, he or she can and shhould be part of the context in which the investigation takes place in order to better understand it. Finally, at a methodological level, the research can use a number of qualitative and quantitative methods, not following a predetermined priority order, but according to the required needs.” (p. 58)
Role of media and ICT in Development Communication
ICT is analogized to media initiatives in past development projects. These initiatives had less influence than expected, especially if done by diffusion methods. Important to select and use ICT and media only in a way that addresses specific needs within the broader social and communication environment. Must consider economic, technological, and cultural factors. High economic costs for access and internet. Technological issues include training, maintenance, technical support. Culturally, must consider how they will use the technology, and language issues.
Consider the demand for universal connectivity. “There is a long way to go for the new ICTs to even begin to approach a level of universal service or access.” (FAO 2005:17, 9th UN Round Table on Development Communication). Quantifiable and fast exchange transmission flows of information, ICTs are promising, and have been discussed by World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), and have come up with the multistakeholder approach (Servaes). (p. 63)
Coastal livelihood project in Tanzania used participatory video to send video edited by themselves sent to high-ranking officials who acknowledged it, and opened up new lines of communication (p. 64).
Better communication can also be seen as a right-based approach, meaning it is not only effective but also promotes people's participation in accord with the ethical and democratic principles of current development paradigm. (p. 66) Open-ended and process-oriented use of communication is much harder to measure accurately. How to measure trust, empowerment, level of consensus is still unresolved.
Mefalopulos brings it all together into his integrated and project-oriented model, the “communication multitrack approach”. Always begins with dialogic communication, before moving into a multitrack approach using information dissemination, social marketing, lobbying, edu-tainment, community mobilization. Its a path to add to the basics of two-way communication. (p. 68-73).
Reflection
This module was very useful to me. The author has been kind enough to do all my background research on the history of theoretical development communication and has summarized it to an amount only a matter of pages longer than I expect to do in my own thesis. Most importantly, I am able to use some of the terminology provided and definitions to begin labeling the different approaches we found in Peru.
It was also interesting to read about his discussion of capacity building as a small aspect of participation. In Peru capacity building is everything! It is certainly something on the agenda for all the large NGO projects in Peru. If an NGO was doing a housing reconstruction project, for instance, the process often involved beneficiary commitments to help with labor and master the basic steps to building their home so that they feel more ownership and are able to make sure any repairs are made right. The NGOs were for it, the people were for it, and everybody said they were into capacity building, but the actual results were very poor. Rarely did we meet someone who had been changed by their experience as a participant, and it was much more common to find people who were supposed to be involved building their homes with the NGO workers, but they either did not have time due to work or chose to for other reasons.
Also, nice table on p. 59 Table 2.1 Basic Differences in the 2 Communication Modes. This module certainly provided me with a couple nice images for the background of my thesis. Of particular interest was an example discussing the use of participatory video in Tanzania to give voice rather than a message; this is similar to what we were trying to do. Interestingly enough, neither the social issues being addressed by the project nor the outcome are mentioned and the complete information does not seem to be readily available online.
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